Native Americans (also Indians, American Indians, First Nations, Alaskan Natives, or Indigenous Peoples of America)
are the indigenous inhabitants of Americas prior to the European colonization, and their modern descendants. This term
comprises a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of them still enduring as political communities.
are the indigenous inhabitants of Americas prior to the European colonization, and their modern descendants. This term
comprises a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of them still enduring as political communities.
Early history
Depending on the context, the terms "Indian" or "Native American" may or may not include the Eskimos
(Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut peoples), whose culture and genetics are distinct from the other groups. The terms
may be construed either to include or to exclude the Canadian Métis.
(Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut peoples), whose culture and genetics are distinct from the other groups. The terms
may be construed either to include or to exclude the Canadian Métis.
Based on anthropological and genetic evidence, scientists generally agree that most Native Americans
descend from people who migrated from Siberia across the Bering Strait, at least 12,000 years ago.
descend from people who migrated from Siberia across the Bering Strait, at least 12,000 years ago.
Mainstream anthropologists and archaeologists consider the genetic, linguistic, and cultural evidence for a
primarily Siberian origin overwhelming. According to this evidence, at least three separate migrations from
Siberia to the Americas are highly likely to have occurred:
primarily Siberian origin overwhelming. According to this evidence, at least three separate migrations from
Siberia to the Americas are highly likely to have occurred:
- The first wave came into a land populated by the large mammals of the late Pleistocene, including mammoths,
horses, giant sloths, and woolly rhinoceroses. The Clovis culture would be a manifestation of that migration,
and the Folsom culture, based on the hunting of bison, would have developed from it. This wave eventually
spread over the entire hemisphere, as far south as Tierra del Fuego. - The second migration brought the ancestors of the Na-Dene peoples. They lived in Alaska and western
Canada, but some migrated as far south as the Pacific Northwestern US and the American Southwest, and
would be ancestral to the Apaches and Navajos. - The third wave brought the ancestors of the Eskimos and the Aleuts. They may have come by sea over the
- In recent years, molecular genetics studies have suggested as many as four distinct migrations from Asia.
These studies also provide surprising evidence of smaller-scale, contemporaneous migrations from Europe,
possibly by peoples who had adopted a lifestyle resembling that of Inuits and Yupiks during the last ice age.
One result of these successive waves of migration is that large groups of Native Americans with similar languages and
perhaps physical characteristics as well, moved into various geographic areas of North, and then Central and South
America. While Native Americans have traditionally remained primarily loyal to their individual tribes, ethnologists
have variously sought to group the myriad of tribes into larger entities which reflect common geographic origins,
linguistic similarities, and life styles. (see Classification of Native Americans)
perhaps physical characteristics as well, moved into various geographic areas of North, and then Central and South
America. While Native Americans have traditionally remained primarily loyal to their individual tribes, ethnologists
have variously sought to group the myriad of tribes into larger entities which reflect common geographic origins,
linguistic similarities, and life styles. (see Classification of Native Americans)
- Several amateur historians have suggested that Native Americans are descendants of Europeans or Africans
who crossed the Atlantic Ocean in prehistory. Some proponents argue that there is a resemblance between
Olmec and African physiques. Thor Heyerdahl demonstrated the this possibility by sailing from Africa to
America on a replica of an Ancient Egyptian reed boat. - Most Native American religions teach that humans were created in America at the beginning of time and have
continuously occupied the area. - According to Mormon doctrine, most Native Americans are descendants of Lehi and the Nephites, Israelites
who came to the Americas ca. 590 B.C. - In the 19th century and early 20th century, proponents of the existence of lost continents such as Atlantis, Mu,
and Lemuria used these to explain how humans could have reached the Americas.
European colonization of the Americas
While many Native American groups retained a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle through the time of European
occupation of the New World, in some regions, specifically in the Mississippi River valley of the United States, in
Mexico, Central America, the Andes of South America, they built advanced civilizations with monumental
architecture and large-scale organization into cities and states.
occupation of the New World, in some regions, specifically in the Mississippi River valley of the United States, in
Mexico, Central America, the Andes of South America, they built advanced civilizations with monumental
architecture and large-scale organization into cities and states.
Native Americans in the United States
See also: Mississippian civilization, Cahokia, Mesoamerica, Maya, Olmec, Zapotec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Aztec,
Aymara, Inca, indigenous people of Brazil.
Aymara, Inca, indigenous people of Brazil.
Early relations
The European colonization of the Americas forever changed the lives and cultures of the Native Americans. In the
15th to 19th centuries, their populations were decimated, by the privations of displacement, by disease, and in
many cases by warfare with European groups and enslavement by them. The first Native American group
encountered by Columbus, the 250,000 Arawaks of Haiti, were violently enslaved. Only 500 survived by the year
1550, and the group was totally extinct before 1650. Over the next 400 years, although the contacts between the
two cultures rarely amounted to genocide, they were usually disastrous for the Native Americans.
15th to 19th centuries, their populations were decimated, by the privations of displacement, by disease, and in
many cases by warfare with European groups and enslavement by them. The first Native American group
encountered by Columbus, the 250,000 Arawaks of Haiti, were violently enslaved. Only 500 survived by the year
1550, and the group was totally extinct before 1650. Over the next 400 years, although the contacts between the
two cultures rarely amounted to genocide, they were usually disastrous for the Native Americans.
In the 15th century Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. Some of these animals
escaped their owners and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. Ironically, the horse had
originally evolved in the Americas, but the last American horses died out at the end of the last ice age. The
re-introduction of the horse, however, had a profound impact on Native American cultures in the Great Plains of
North America. This new mode of travel made it possible for some tribes to greatly expand their territories,
exchange goods with neighboring tribes and to more easily capture game.
escaped their owners and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. Ironically, the horse had
originally evolved in the Americas, but the last American horses died out at the end of the last ice age. The
re-introduction of the horse, however, had a profound impact on Native American cultures in the Great Plains of
North America. This new mode of travel made it possible for some tribes to greatly expand their territories,
exchange goods with neighboring tribes and to more easily capture game.
Current status
From the outset, European colonists had at best lived in an uneasy truce with the Native North Americans. While
the groups sometimes cooperated, the Indians were inexorably displaced from the most favorable land, and
frequently resisted this process with understandable violence. Although in recent years it has become popular to
assert that Native Americans learned scalping from Europeans, historical evidence suggests that scalping by Native
Americans had been practiced long before contact with Europeans.[2]
(http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_034800_scalpsandsca.htm) The first reported
case of white men scalping Native Americans took place in New Hampshire colony on February 20, 1725.
the groups sometimes cooperated, the Indians were inexorably displaced from the most favorable land, and
frequently resisted this process with understandable violence. Although in recent years it has become popular to
assert that Native Americans learned scalping from Europeans, historical evidence suggests that scalping by Native
Americans had been practiced long before contact with Europeans.[2]
(http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_034800_scalpsandsca.htm) The first reported
case of white men scalping Native Americans took place in New Hampshire colony on February 20, 1725.
Europeans also brought diseases against which the Native Americans had no immunity. Sometimes they did this
intentionally, but often it was unintentional. Ailments such as chicken pox and measles, though common and rarely
fatal among Europeans, often proved fatal to Native Americans. More deadly diseases such as smallpox were
especially deadly to Native American populations. It is difficult to estimate the percentage of the total Native
American population killed by these diseases, since waves of disease oftentimes preceded White scouts and often
destroyed entire villages. Some historians argue that up to 80% of some Indian populations may have died due to
European diseases. (See Jeffrey Amherst for an example of germ warfare)
intentionally, but often it was unintentional. Ailments such as chicken pox and measles, though common and rarely
fatal among Europeans, often proved fatal to Native Americans. More deadly diseases such as smallpox were
especially deadly to Native American populations. It is difficult to estimate the percentage of the total Native
American population killed by these diseases, since waves of disease oftentimes preceded White scouts and often
destroyed entire villages. Some historians argue that up to 80% of some Indian populations may have died due to
European diseases. (See Jeffrey Amherst for an example of germ warfare)
Four Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy sided with the British and the Tories in the American Revolutionary
War. The colonists were especially outraged by the Wyoming Massacre and the Cherry Valley Massacre,
which occurred in 1778. In 1779 Congress sent Major General John Sullivan on what has become known as
the Sullivan Expedition to neutralize the Iroquois threat to the American side. The two allied nations were
rewarded, at least temporarily, by keeping title to their lands after the Revolution. The title was later purchased
very cheaply by Massachusetts and sold off in the Phelps and Gorham Purchase and the Holland Purchase,
after which by treaty these lands became part of New York State. The tribes were either moved to reservations
or sent westward. Part of the Cayuga Nation was granted a reservation in British Canada.
War. The colonists were especially outraged by the Wyoming Massacre and the Cherry Valley Massacre,
which occurred in 1778. In 1779 Congress sent Major General John Sullivan on what has become known as
the Sullivan Expedition to neutralize the Iroquois threat to the American side. The two allied nations were
rewarded, at least temporarily, by keeping title to their lands after the Revolution. The title was later purchased
very cheaply by Massachusetts and sold off in the Phelps and Gorham Purchase and the Holland Purchase,
after which by treaty these lands became part of New York State. The tribes were either moved to reservations
or sent westward. Part of the Cayuga Nation was granted a reservation in British Canada.
Native Americans in Central and South America
In the 19th century, the Westward expansion of the United States incrementally expelled large numbers of Native
Americans from vast areas of their territory, either by forcing them into marginal lands farther and farther west, or by
outright massacres. Under President Andrew Jackson, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which
forced the Five Civilized Tribes from the east onto western reservations, primarily to take their land for settlement.
The forced migration was marked by great hardship and many deaths. Its route is known as the Trail of Tears.
Americans from vast areas of their territory, either by forcing them into marginal lands farther and farther west, or by
outright massacres. Under President Andrew Jackson, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which
forced the Five Civilized Tribes from the east onto western reservations, primarily to take their land for settlement.
The forced migration was marked by great hardship and many deaths. Its route is known as the Trail of Tears.
Culture and arts
The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the pow-wow.
At Pow-wows, members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing
in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center.
At Pow-wows, members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing
in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center.
Native American music is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Traditional Native American
music often includes drumming but little other instrumentation, although flutes are played by individuals. The tuning of
these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but
the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it
turned out to have an interval close to a half step.
music often includes drumming but little other instrumentation, although flutes are played by individuals. The tuning of
these flutes is not precise and depends on the length of the wood used and the hand span of the intended player, but
the finger holes are most often around a whole step apart and, at least in Northern California, a flute was not used if it
turned out to have an interval close to a half step.
Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include
pottery, paintings, jewelry, weavings, sculptures, basketry and carvings.
pottery, paintings, jewelry, weavings, sculptures, basketry and carvings.
The terms Indian or American Indian were born of the misconception by Christopher Columbus that the Caribbean
islands were the islands in Southeast Asia known to Europeans as the East Indies. The replacement term Native American
was introduced in the United States by anthropologists who considered Indian quaint and inaccurate. That word had also
been tainted with a negative connotation by the 19th century American press and 20th century Western movies.
islands were the islands in Southeast Asia known to Europeans as the East Indies. The replacement term Native American
was introduced in the United States by anthropologists who considered Indian quaint and inaccurate. That word had also
been tainted with a negative connotation by the 19th century American press and 20th century Western movies.
Nevertheless, Indian and American Indian continue in widespread use in North America, even amongst Native
Americans themselves, most of whom do not feel offended by the terms. Indeed many prefer to be called Indians, since
this was the term applied to their forefathers. Native American may be more preferable to academics than to Native
Americans themselves. [15] (http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/means.html). Some also argue that Native
American is inappropriate because "native of" literally means "born in", so any person born in America is "native" to it.
A more serious difficulty with this term is that several ethnic groups traditionally excluded from the American Indians
were just as "native" to the Americas as them. These groups include the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut peoples of the far north
of the continent. Eskimos was once used for these groups, but this term is in disfavor because it is perceived by many
of them as derogatory.
Americans themselves, most of whom do not feel offended by the terms. Indeed many prefer to be called Indians, since
this was the term applied to their forefathers. Native American may be more preferable to academics than to Native
Americans themselves. [15] (http://www.peaknet.net/~aardvark/means.html). Some also argue that Native
American is inappropriate because "native of" literally means "born in", so any person born in America is "native" to it.
A more serious difficulty with this term is that several ethnic groups traditionally excluded from the American Indians
were just as "native" to the Americas as them. These groups include the Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut peoples of the far north
of the continent. Eskimos was once used for these groups, but this term is in disfavor because it is perceived by many
of them as derogatory.
In Canada the term First Nations is used to refer to Native Americans, except for the Eskimos and the Métis. The
Canadian Indian Act however, which defines the rights of recognized First Nations, refers to them as Indians. In Alaska,
the term Alaskan Native predominates, because of its legal use in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANSCA)
and because it includes the Eskimo peoples. In Latin America, the preferred expression is Indigenous Peoples (pueblos
indígenas in Spanish, povos indígenas in Portuguese). However, Indians (indios, índios) is often used too, even by the
natives themselves. Red Indian is a common British term, useful in differentiating this group from a distinct group of people
referred to as East Indians, but considered offensive in North America, where it is rarely if ever used. In the French
language, the term Amérindien has been coined, and the English term Amerindian (sometimes abbreviated Amerind) is
sometimes used in the social sciences to refer collectively to all Native American peoples or cultures.
Canadian Indian Act however, which defines the rights of recognized First Nations, refers to them as Indians. In Alaska,
the term Alaskan Native predominates, because of its legal use in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANSCA)
and because it includes the Eskimo peoples. In Latin America, the preferred expression is Indigenous Peoples (pueblos
indígenas in Spanish, povos indígenas in Portuguese). However, Indians (indios, índios) is often used too, even by the
natives themselves. Red Indian is a common British term, useful in differentiating this group from a distinct group of people
referred to as East Indians, but considered offensive in North America, where it is rarely if ever used. In the French
language, the term Amérindien has been coined, and the English term Amerindian (sometimes abbreviated Amerind) is
sometimes used in the social sciences to refer collectively to all Native American peoples or cultures.
Because the ancestors of the "Native" Americans are thought to have arrived from Asia, some people have proposed
Asiatic Americans as being more historically accurate. This term is easily confused with Asian-American, and it is
considered offensive by many Indians whose religious belief is that they have been in the Americas since the dawn of
time. Furthermore, there is a strong tradition in archaeological and anthropological nomenclature to name peoples after
the geographical location where they were first documented, rather than for their hypothetical region of origin.
Asiatic Americans as being more historically accurate. This term is easily confused with Asian-American, and it is
considered offensive by many Indians whose religious belief is that they have been in the Americas since the dawn of
time. Furthermore, there is a strong tradition in archaeological and anthropological nomenclature to name peoples after
the geographical location where they were first documented, rather than for their hypothetical region of origin.